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- Alcohol consumption
- Chewing betel quid,
- Primarily done in India and southeast Asia
- Coal,
- Indoor emissions from household combustion of coal
- Eating infected raw or undercooked fresh water fish from southeast Asia , China, and Korea
- Eating salted fish,
- Eating raw or under cooked freshwater fish which contain the infective stage of flukes
- Medical patients,
- Exposures from medical treatment, such as medications and radiation
- Sexual activity,
- Exposures to biologics such as HIV, HPV, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C
- Tobacco,
- Tobacco smoking
- Tobacco smoking, parental smoking,
- Including preconception and pregnancy
- Tobacco smoking,
- Using chinese herbs,
- UV-emitting tanning devices
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